Grommersoft

Chapter 7: Participation and Voting
Synopsis

The democratic ideal that "government ought to be run by the people" does not determine how much citizen participation, and what kind, is necessary for democratic government. Proponents of direct democracy insist on citizen participation in formulating government policy. Practical observers contend that citizens can govern indirectly through elected representatives.

There are two basic forms of political participation. Conventional participation refers to relatively routine political behavior using the institutional channels of repre-sentative government, such as election. Individuals may engage in supportive behavior, which expresses allegiance to government and country. Typically, however, citizens participate in conventional politics in order to influence government policy. People may seek particular benefits for themselves or they may hope to modify the broad policies of government.

Unconventional participation, on the other hand, refers to relatively uncommon behavior that threatens or defies government channels. Americans generally disapprove of unconventional political actions that interfere with daily living. Unconventional participation, however, had some notable successes in influencing government policy during the Vietnam War. The civil rights movement relied on direct action‹assembling crowds to confront business and local government‹against racial discrimination. Direct political action requires a special commitment and willingness to sacrifice from those who participate in it. People participating in unconventional political behavior distrust the political system and have a strong sense of political efficacy and a highly developed sense of group consciousness. Studies suggest that Americans are more likely to participate in both conventional and unconventional political behavior than citizens of other democratic countries‹except for voting.

Participation through elections is still the heart of democratic process. Although the elimination of property-holding requirements expanded suffrage to all white males by the 1850s, other groups were incorporated much later. Blacks gained an effective right to vote only with the passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Women fought hard and long for the ratification of the Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution in 1920, which guaranteed their right to vote. In 1971, the Twenty-sixth Amendment extended suffrage to all citizens over eighteen years of age.

The legacy of progressivism in American politics left behind several mechanisms of direct citizen participation in policymaking. The direct primary allows ordinary citizens to vote directly for their candidates. The recall allows citizens to remove unpopular or incompetent officials from office before their term is up. Through the referendum, citizens vote directly on issues. In addition, by means of the initiative, state and local voters are allowed to propose issues to be decided by their legislatures.

Voters are expected to choose candidates they believe will best serve their interests. Elections make public officials accountable, assuming that citizens have adequate information about the candidates and their offices.

There are several explanations for why people participate in politics, especially by voting. The standard socioeconomic model of participation suggest that people with more education, more income, and professional or white-collar jobs are more likely to participate in politics. Education is the strongest single predictor of participation.

Despite improvements in education and income, voting turnout in the United States has declined over time. This is in part the result of the increased pool of eligible voters since the voting age was lowered from twenty-one to eighteen in 1971. Young people are less likely to vote. Psychological studies have found that there is a decreasing belief in the efficacy of voting. Restrictive laws and the burden of individual registration discourage voting in the United States. In addition, political parties fail to mobilize voters because of weak group-party linkages. Inadequate information about a large number of candidates and offices also discourages voting.

From a normative perspective, it is clear that individuals should be free to participate in politics as they wish. However, citizens' ability to influence government depends on their resources. There is, in addition, a tradeoff between freedom to participate in politics and government's desire to maintain order. Not surprisingly, governments have a stake in converting unconventional modes of participation to conventional modes.

The two models of democracy allow us to evaluate the role of participation in a democracy. The majoritarian model favors collective decisions formalized through elections. The pluralist model favors a decentralized complex form of government with many points of access. Pluralists therefore support forms of conventional political participation outside of the electoral process.

©1998 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.