Notetaker: Victor Law
Advanced Placement Psychology
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
(
http://www.ApPsychology.net )
The Scientific Attitude
• Scientific approach that is skeptical and open-minded
• To shift away from illusions to reality, one must use Smart thinking or critical thinking: thinking that does not
blindly accept things, but approaches with skepticism and examines the evidence carefully; Ask how did they
know, on guts and instinct? Are the evidence biased?
• However, must remember to have humility as too extreme would be stubbornness
The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense
• Intuition often ends up nowhere
• Tend to use a lot hindsight bias: tendency to believe that one would have known it after the results are shown;
Seems like common sense; The answer was right there and look how obvious it was
• Experience it usually when looking back on history; eg. Glen Clark and the fast ferries
• Humans tend to be overconfident, think we know more than we actually do (probably result of self-serving bias)
• Hindsight causes us to be overconfident as we believe we would have picked the answer when the results are in
front of us
The Scientific Method
• Scientific theory: explanation using set of princi ples to organi se/predict observations
• No matter how good theory sounds, must put it to test
• Must imply testable prediction = hypothesis
• Beware of bias when testing
• Good experiment can be replicated: the experiment can be repeated and would yield constant results; done with a
different group of people or by a different person ending with constant results
• Theory useful if:
(1) effectively organises range of observations
(2) implies clear predictions
• Case study: research method where one person is studied in depth to find universal principles (things that apply
to all)
• Drawback is that the individual being studied could be atypical, results not universally contained
• Survey: research method to get the self-reported attitudes/behaviours of people
• Looks at cases less depth and wording of question affects the response given (framing)Tend to hang around group
similar to us so using them as study is wrong
• False consensus effect: tendency to overestimate other’s agreement with us; eg. Vegetarians believe larger
amount of pop. is vegetarian than Meat-eaters
• Population: all the cases in the group being studied
• To make a good sample, use random sampling: sample that gives each case a good chance of being studied to
ensure results within range
• Naturalistic observation: observing and recording behaviour in natural settings with any control on situation
• Like case study & survey, doesn’t explain behaviour
• When finding a trait that accompanies another, not resulting effect, but correlation: the way 2 factors vary
together and how well one predicts the other
• Positive correlation: direct relationship where factors increase or decrease together
• Negative correlation: inverse relationship where one factor goes up while one goes down
• Does not explain cause, simply show relationship between factors
• Illusory correlation: perceiving correlation when none exist; Notice random coincidences as not random, rather
as correlated
Experiment
• To isolate cause & effect, conduct experiments
• Experimental condition: condition that exposes subjects to treatment
• Control condition: condition that serves as a comparison to see effects of treatment on experimental condition
subjects
• Use random assignment: assigning subjects to experimental/control groups randomly to ensure no bias
• Independent variable: experimental factor being manipulated and studied (by itself, alone, no need to depend on
something) * x-axis
• Dependent variable: experimental factor that depends on independent variable and changes in response to it * y-
axis
• Placebo: an inert substance/condition that maybe administered instead of a presumed active agent
• Double-blind procedure: procedure in which the experimenter and the subject noth don't know which treatment
is given
Bibliography
Myers, David G., Psychology Fifth Edition. Worth Publishers, Inc. New York, NY ©1998
